Immunotoxic changes associated with a 7-day oral exposure to perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) in adult male C57BL/6 mice. Toxicology, 284(1-3):54-62. The quantified concentrations ranged from 2.0 to 2.7 ng/g wet weight (w.w.; in marine and freshwater fish, ground beef and beef steak). In: Proceedings of the Annual International Conference on Soils, Sediments, Water and Energy. Harada, K., Inoue, K., Morikawa, A., Yoshinaga, T. and Saito, N. (2005). The models were relatively good at reproducing controlled dosing data for rats (dietary, oral gavage, and IV routes of exposure; Loccisano et al., 2012a), and monkeys (IV and oral gavage routes of exposure; Loccisano et al., 2011). Pollut. Ann. Hernández-Avila, M., Smith, D., Meneses, F., Sanin, L.H. (1999). Nutr. J. Clin. Water Health, 6(2): 177–185. and Saxena, D.K. (2014). However full-scale evaluation of this technology has not been conducted specifically for PFOS removal in drinking water. Environ. Water Res., 44(8): 2654-2662. Prepared by the seventy-third meeting of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). Erratum in: Birth Defects Res. An international pooled analysis for obtaining a benchmark dose for environmental lead exposure in children. Neurotoxicology, 1(2): 333–347. Water Res, 45: 2925-2930. A dual media (GAC and sand) is used when turbidity removal and the adsorption/removal of the contaminants are combined in a single unit process. (2005) pooled-analysis that related low levels of blood lead to intellectual deficits in children. Health, 10(1): 24. Fu et al. Over background of 2.27% or 2 cases per 100 children with an intellectual disability (see figure 1). (2013). Based on analysis of these considerations, the application of an additive approach for PFOS and PFOA in drinking water is the most appropriate method for the protection of human health. Rasmussen, P.E., Wheeler, A.J., Hassan, N.M., Filiatreault, A. and Lanouette, M. (2007). A drinking water guideline of 0.3 μg/L (0.0003 mg/L) was derived by the UK Health Protection Agency (UK HPA, 2007; 2009) based on a TDI of 300 ng/kg bw per day (0.3 μg/kg bw per day) previously derived by the UK Committee on Toxicity of Chemicals in Food, Consumer Products and the Environment (UK COT, 2006). Teratol., 11(2): 95–104. PFOS was not detected in any of these samples, including in microwave popcorn bags (Dolman and Pelzing, 2011). Kim, E.J., Herrera, J.E., Huggins, D., Braam, J. and Koshowski, S. (2011). Intern. (1988). Deshommes, E., Laroche, L., Nour, S., Cartier, C. and Prévost, M. (2010a). (2015) study, rat pups were exposed in utero, lactationally, or both to 5 and 15 mg/L in drinking water (equivalent to 0.7 and 2.1 mg/kg bw per day using Health Canada's [1994] assumption of 1 ppm in water = 0.14 mg/kg bw per day in rats, which might not be relevant for pregnant or lactating dams). J. van Leeuwen, S. P. and de Boer, J. [Nonneoplastic and neoplastic changes in the kidneys and other organs in rodents fed lead acetate and sulfathiazole chronically.] Association of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) with uric acid among adults with elevated community exposure to PFOA. There are some methods that can be used to measure PFOS in drinking water at levels well below the MAC. The PFOS child:mother ratios were higher in boys aged 5 years than in girls (Mondal et al., 2012). Med., 42(10): 682–685. In an additional longitudinal study of aging males (from the Normative Aging Study) that examined hypertension (but not blood pressure), higher BLLs were not associated with an increased incidence of hypertension, although the relationship between bone lead and hypertension was significant (Cheng et al., 2001). Res., 66(1): 12–30. Available at: www.atsdr.cdc.gov/ToxProfiles/tp13.pdf. Toxicol. 10:579-588. Since the size exclusion is an important mechanism for PFAS rejection by NF membranes, consideration should be taken to select membranes with MWCO smaller than the size of PFOS. (2017). For PFOS, however, the lowest observed doses associated with the adverse outcomes in rats (cystic degeneration: 0.024 mg/kg bw per day, hepatocellular adenomas: 0.984 and 1.251 mg/kg bw per day in male and females, respectively) were lower than those at which hepatocyte proliferation was observed (≥1.93 mg/kg bw per day). Carlisle, J.C. and Dowling, K. (2006). These effects are important for consideration during the assessment of PFOS risks, as epidemiology studies tend to demonstrate minor positive (albeit inconsistent, and of questionable clinical importance) associations between PFOS and serum cholesterol levels. Renal proliferative lesions were more common and more severe in these mice (0%, 40%, 52% and 60% for the control, 1000, 2000 and 4000 mg/L dose groups, respectively). Subst. NSF International, Ann Arbor, Michigan. [As cited in EFSA (2008)]. Attri, J., Dhawan, V., Mahmood, S., Pandhi, P., Parwana, H.K. Nitric oxide synthase expression in the course of lead-induced hypertension. The compounds are eluted from the SPE cartridge, concentrated and injected into a LC-MS/MS. Technol., 45:762-767. Prenatal and postnatal impact of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) on rat development: a cross-foster study on chemical burden and thyroid hormone system. Ion exchange and adsorption of inorganic contaminants. There is very little information on the acute toxicity of lead in animals. Experience in Wales (UK) of the optimization of ortho-phosphate dosing for controlling lead in drinking water. and Olsen, G.W. No changes in T3 levels were observed in two rat studies (Yu et al., 2009; Lau et al., 2003), but they occurred at high levels in another (Wang et al., 2011a). Sci. Trace Elem. Mean BLL was measured at the 14-week time point and was 3.2 μg/dL in the treated animals. Is a positive association between lead exposure and blood pressure supported by animal experiments? Exposure to perfluorooctane sulfonate during pregnancy in rat and mouse. (2005). PFOS and PFOA are persistent compounds that do not undergo biodegradation, thus they compartmentalize into similar media, making the temporal aspects of external co-exposure likely. A Math. (2005). U.S. EPA (2012b). Wang, F., Liu, W., Jin, Y., Dai, J., Zhao, H., Xie, Q. et al. Goodrum, P.E., Diamond, G.L., Hassett, J.M. (1992). (2001). Med., 12(5): 217-219. Environ. This section presents the various drinking water guidelines and standards from international organizations. Med. Kim, S., Choi, K., Ji, K., Seo, J., Kho, Y., Park, J., Hwang, I., Jeon, J., Yang, H. and Giesy, J.P. (2011a). Some data exist for hepatic PPAR activity in rats; however, no studies directly measured PPAR impact on other outcomes. Health Perspect .,112: 499–507. (1997). Kerlin (2002). Low-level Pb and cardiovascular responses to acute stress in children: the role of cardiac autonomic regulation. The lowest LOAELs for hepatic, lipid, and thyroid effects were 0.024 mg/kg bw per day (Butenhoff et al., 2012b), 0.03 mg/kg bw per day (Seacat et al., 2002), and 0.15 mg/kg bw per day (Seacat et al., 2002), respectively. The concentrations of PFAS in the traditional foods of Inuit in Northern Canada were measured in order to estimate their dietary exposure (Ostertag et al., 2009b). It can be found in three oxidation states: Pb0 (elemental lead), Pb2… October 15-17, 2008. Thus, there is sufficient evidence in experimental animals that implicate lead exposure in adverse neurological effects. Xie, Y. and Giammar, D.E. Moody, C.A., Martin, J.W., Kwan, W.C., Muir, D.C.G. Wilhelm, M., Kraft, M., Rauchfuss, K. and Holzer, J. Chronic lead exposure accelerates decay of long-term potentiation in rat dentate gyrus in vivo. Available at: https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/gdwq4-with-add1-chap12.pdf?ua=1. Results indicated that all activated carbon and RO devices were effective in removing PFOS to below the quantification limit of 0.2 µg/L and below the detection limit of 0.05 µg/L, respectively. (Awwa Research Foundation Project No. and Leggett, R.W. MURC Study Group. Acta Psychiatr. Sci. Despite this strength, the approach relies on single values representative of pharmacokinetics in species, and does not necessarily account for non-linear pharmacokinetics. Health Canada. (2011). An optimized method for the determination of perfluorooctanoic acid, perfluorooctane sulfonate and other perfluorochemicals in different matrices using liquid chromatography/ion-trap mass spectrometry. Corrosion control on the basis of utility experience. Health, 47(5): 336–346. Br. The mortality of lead smelter workers: an update. Percutaneous absorption of inorganic lead compounds. AwwaRF (1990). Three laboratory study: SA-1000 EPA Study. Environ. Moreover, decreases in non-specific serum IgM were observed at ≥5 mg/kg bw per day in male C57BL/6 mice exposed to 5 or 20 mg/kg bw per day for 7 days (Zheng et al., 2011). Sci., 35(4): 349–364. There are a significant number of data implicating low levels of exposure (BLLs < 10 µg/dL) in these adverse effects. National survey of lead and allergens in housing. These mechanisms are described thoroughly in Vaziri (2008) and are presented briefly below. J. Soils Sediments, 10: 179-185. In animals, dietary co-exposure to lead and 2-acetylaminofluorene, N-ethyl-N-hydroxyethylnitrosamine or N-(4′-fluoro-4-biphenyl)acetamide resulted in an increased incidence of renal tumours in rats, and a study in humans suggests that exposure to lead increases lung cancer risk among smokers (Lustberg and Silbergeld, 2002; Healey, 2014). A slight decrease in serum alkaline phosphatase was observed in male monkeys exposed to 0.5 mg/kg bw per day (but not 1.5 or 4.5 mg/kg bw per day) for 90 days (Goldenthal et al., 1978b). J. Chem. Lett., 171(3): 162-170. Ndzangou, S.O., Richer-LaFlèche, M. and Houle, D. (2006). (2000). Hypertens., 16(8): 563–568. The study in which the effects were observed at the lowest levels (Seacat et al., 2003) was of rats in 4- and 14-week early sacrifice groups of a 2-year dietary study (Butenhoff et al., 2012b; histological effects in the liver in this study are summarized in Section 9.2.3). A MAC of 0.005 mg/L (5 µg/L) is established for lead in drinking water, based on the following considerations: In considering both treatment and analytical achievability and the health risks associated with exposure to lead from drinking water, the Federal-Provincial-Territorial Committee on Drinking Water has established a MAC of 0.005 mg/L (5 µg/L) for total lead in drinking water, based on a sample of water taken at the consumer's tap, using the appropriate protocol for the type of building being sampled. Pediatr., 137(4): 555–561. Biol. Deng, S., Yu, Q., Huang, J., Yu, G. (2010). Technol., 37:888-891. J. Toxicol. Cognitive functioning in lead workers. [As cited in OECD (2002); EFSA (2008); Health Canada (2012)]. Oyasu, R., Battifora, H.A., Clasen, R.A., McDonald, J.H. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., New York, New York. J. J. Toxicol. Oliphant, R.J. and Schock, M.R. Environ. Critical windows of fetal lead exposure: adverse impacts on length of gestation and risk of premature delivery. (2003). Arch. 5084). The only evidence of potential adverse lung effects in mice pups was the observation of post-delivery cyanosis in some pups exposed to 12.5 mg/kg bw per day (Borg et al., 2010). NSF International, Ann Arbor, Michigan. Rice, D.C. (1990). Med., 61(11): 915–923. (2010). Turgeon O'Brien, H., Blanchet, R., Gagné, D., Lauzière, J., Vézina, C., Vaissière, E., Ayotte, P. and Déry, S. (2012). The summaries described herein use the concentrations and doses stated by authors. Environ. III. Although the matrix interferences are negligible for drinking water and groundwater (ISO, 2009), the PFOS quantification requires efficient extraction and clean-up procedures. In conclusion, there are several plausible modes of action for lead-induced cancers. Water, Air and Climate Change Bureau, Healthy Environments and Consumer Safety Branch, Health Canada, Ottawa, Ontario. Int. Solid phase extraction of perfluoroalkylated compounds from sea water. (2011). Effects of lead on voltage-gated sodium channels in rat hippocampal CA1 neurons. et al. In conclusion, no clear pattern of association between maternal PFOS levels and sperm quality can be established because of studies' inconsistencies, design limitations, and high risk of selection bias. Other general effects observed included localized alopecia in rats (Christian et al., 1999) and soft stool, diarrhea, anorexia, emesis, and twitching, trembling and convulsions in monkeys (Goldenthal et al., 1978b). Sci. Metal levels in the soils of the Sudbury smelter footprint. Wolf and Reagen (2011) reported that an addition of isotope-labelled internal standards prior to sample collection simplified the sample preparation procedures. J. N. Engl. In all of these studies, PFOS and PFOA were the predominant PFAS detected. Lau, C., Thibodeaux, J.R., Hanson, R.G., Rogers, J.M., Grey, B.E., Stanton, M.E., Butenhoff, J.L. Arch. Perfluorinated chemicals (PFCs) in water purification plants (WPPs) with advanced treatment processes. In humans, evidence of immunosuppression is inconsistent-associations are observed between PFOS levels and decreases in antibodies against some (but not all) illnesses, and the influence of PFOS exposure on clinical immunosuppression (i.e. The sorption of the perfluorinated contaminants was increased with increasing carbon-fluorine chain length with the same functional group. Richardson, E. (2006). National Exposure Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio (EPA/600/R-94/111). Dallaire, R., Dewailly, E., Pereg, D., Dery, S. and Ayotte, P. (2009). RO rejects a significant portion of the influent water as contaminant-rich brine, and the concentrate discharge must be disposed of appropriately. and Galloway, T.S. Jusko, T.A., Henderson, C.R., Jr., Lanphear, B.P., Cory-Slechta, D.A., Parsons, P.J. Delayed puberty in females appears to be the most sensitive endpoint, with evidence suggesting effects at BLLs as low as 1.2 µg/dL. Ito, N. (1973). An epidemiological re-appraisal of the association between blood pressure and blood lead: a meta-analysis. Reprod. and Blum, C. (1991). Wells, E.M., Navas-Acien, A., Herbstman, J.B., Apelberg, B.J., Silbergeld, E.K., Caldwell, K.L., Jones, R.L., Halden, R.U., Witter, F.R. Health, 58(6): 373–379. The association with PFOS and serum TT4 and T3 uptake was stronger in women, but lower than men for serum albumin. Risk, 1(1): 87–97. No study was able to demonstrate the biodegradation of PFOS under aerobic or anaerobic conditions (Beach et al., 2006) and PFOS is considered resistant to microbial degradation (Health Canada, 2006). Excel spreadsheet. Senevirathna, S.T.M.L.D, Tanaka, S., Fujii, S., Kunacheva, C., Harada, H., Shivacoti, B., Dinh, H. and Ariadas, T. (2011). A mean oral LD50 value of 251 mg/kg bw was calculated for male and female CD rats based on a single administration of PFOS (100-1,000 mg/kg bw) by gavage (5/sex/group) (Dean and Jessup, 1978). Sandvig, A., Martel, K., Beggs, K., Jaffe Murray, A., Greiner, P., Kneen, K., McLellan, C., Bennet, D. and Terrell, J. Early sacrifice was also performed at weeks 4 and 14; the observations at these time points are presented throughout Section 9.2 (as Seacat et al., 2003). Geochemical background in soil and till. Changes in serum lipid levels were also observed around the levels at which liver and thyroid effects occur. Liver concentrations could not be verified for humans, mice, and monkeys; for rats, minimal verification could be performed, but as data were available for only one to two timepoints in each study, the comparisons are not robust. Polyfluoroalkyl chemicals in the serum and milk of breastfeeding women. (1978). Int. Low-level exposures to lead: the Sydney Lead Study. (2000). Mao, P. and Molnar, J.J. (1967). In studies of binary mixtures of PFOS and PFOA, additivity has been observed at the level of apoptotic potential in mouse HEPG2 liver cells (Hu and Hu, 2009), mortality in zebrafish embyros (Ding et al., 2013), and PPARα activation in Cos-1 cells (Wolf et al., 2014). Chemosphere, 80(10): 1125-1130. and Giammar, D.E. NSF International/American National Standards Institute Standard 53: Drinking water treatment units-health effects. and Butenhoff, J.L. The proportions of the population shown are: 34.13% (IQ of 85 – 100) and 34.13% (IQ of 100 – 115), 13.59% (IQ of 70 – 85) and 13.59% (IQ of 115 – 130), 2.14% (IQ of 55-70) and 2.14% (IQ of 130 – 145) and 0.13% (IQ below 55) and 0.13% (IQ above 145). Effects of flow and water chemistry on lead release rates from pipe scales. Interspecies extrapolation for perfluorooctyl sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA). Chinese paper. A statistical re-evaluation of the data was undertaken by Crump et al. and Nieboer, E. (2003). (2003) examined blood pressure and hypertension prevalence in 2165 premenopausal and postmenopausal women and determined that hypertension was significantly increased in the women at BLLs ranging from 4.0 to 31.1 μg/dL, with stronger associations observed in the postmenopausal women. Regional decreases in α-[, McDonald, L.T., Rasmussen, P.E., Chenier, M. and Levesque, C. (2010). Available at: http://www.palintest.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/TSI01003-The-EPA-Validation-report-for-the-Scanning-Analyzer.pdf. Tang, C., Kwon, Y-N. and Leckie, J. Lead in plasma and whole blood from lead-exposed children. Rasmussen, P.E., Beauchemin, S., Chénier, M., Levesque, C., MacLean, L.C.W., Marro, L., Jones-Otazo, H., Petrovic, S., McDonald, L.T. The drinking water guidelines can be used as markers to make sure the barriers are working and the treated drinking water is safe. Information on ethnicity was available for the U.S. data, although socioeconomic status, nutrition and paternal IQ were not assessed. A wide variety of other short-term effects were observed for PFOS. (2013). Of the existing studies on IQ decrements in children (see Section 9.1.3.2), the meta-analysis performed by Lanphear et al. Decreased survival or viability, or increased mortality were observed in foetuses or pups at ≥1.6 mg/kg bw per day in rats (Christian et al., 1999; Lau et al., 2003; Luebker et al., 2005a, 2005b; Xia et al., 2011) and at ≥4.5 mg/kg bw per day in mice (Lau et al., 2003; Yahia et al., 2008; Abbott et al., 2009). J. Removal rates of approximately 25% were observed using enhanced coagulation with alum doses greater than 60 mg/L and pH 4.5 - 6.5. Murphy, E.A. Cosmochim. BLLs in the two highest dose groups (8.1/12.7 μg/dL and 8.1/12.9 μg/dL in the second and third generations, respectively) were statistically significant for the 0.2 mg/kg exposure level (BLL = 0.7 μg/dL for both second and third generations). The studies that reported adverse effects at the lowest doses were done in cynomolgus monkeys orally exposed 5 days a week to lead acetate at 0, 50 or 100 µg/kg bw per day, from birth onwards. (2012). Am. Blood lead concentration and delayed puberty in girls. Decreased serum total cholesterol was observed at several different timepoints in males (14, 17, and 53 weeks), with significance observed only at the high dose (NOAEL of 0.242 mg/kg bw per day, and LOAEL of 0.984 mg/kg bw per day). Cross-sectional studies within the C8 Health Project found increasing trends for total cholesterol, LDL, triglycerides, and the total cholesterol (TC)/HDL ratio with increasing PFOS (Steenland et al., 2009; Frisbee et al., 2010). Perkins, R., Butenhoff, J., Kennedy, G. and Palazzolo, M. (2004). (2011). Toxicol., 84(6): 471-479. and Liu, J. Treatment of poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances in U.S. full-scale water treatment systems. Mutagen., 23(2): 143–149. Because PFOS remains in the human body longer than in does in rats, an approach that accounts for this difference was used in the derivation of the MAC for PFOS in drinking water. Conventional drinking water treatment processes generally incorporate coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, and filtration, followed by primary and secondary disinfection. and Lau, C. (2010). Nash, D., Magder, L., Lustberg, M., Sherwin, R.W., Rubin, R.J., Kaufmann, R.B. Fraser, S., Muckle, G. and Després, C. (2006). (2010). Endocrinol., 151: U25-U37. Pocock, S.J., Smith, M. and Baghurst, P. (1994). Ann. Chronic low-lead exposure from birth produces deficits in discrimination reversal in monkeys. Testing for departures from additivity in mixtures of perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs). and Lau, C. (2013). Health Perspect., 1154–1159. This drinking water quality value was derived from a NOAEL of 0.1 mg/kg bw per day for decreased pup body weight following maternal exposure to PFOS for six weeks prior to mating and during gestation by oral gavage (Luebker et al., 2005a). It was not entirely known whether elevated BLLs preceded or followed diagnosis. Occupational lead exposure. Med., 54(8): 974-983. The RO membrane achieved a 99.9% rejection of PFOS from the feed water concentration of 2100 ng/L with a permeate PFOS concentration in the range of 2-3 ng/L. Dabeka, R.W., Karpinski, K.F., McKenzie, A.D. and Bajdik, C.D. Nawrot, T.S., Thijs, L., Den Hond, E.M., Roels, H.A. (2004). In the first study (van Leeuwen et al., 2006), conducted in 2004/2005, factors resulting in poor agreement between participating laboratories, were determined to be low PFOA/PFOS concentrations (below 20 ng/L) in water samples; the use of low purity standards, high matrix effect, and a high background contamination in the analytical blanks. Presence of anionic perfluorinated organic compounds in serum collected from Northern Canadian populations. Bryant, S.D. (2007) examined whether psychological stress modified the impact of cumulative lead exposure (measured as tibia and patella lead levels) on hypertension and blood pressure in lead exposed men from a Boston community participating in the Normative Aging Study. Water Research Foundation, Denver, Colorado (Water Research Foundation Project No. (1994a). Hogstedt, C., Hane, M., Agrell, A. and Bodin, L. (1983). Water samples analyzed before and after the GAC system demonstrated reduction of an influent PFOS concentration of 2.3 ng/L to 0.25 ng/L (89% removal) (Appleman et al., 2014). Air quality criteria for lead. Available at: http://yosemite.epa.gov/sab/sabproduct.nsf/964CCDB94F4E6216852579190072606F/$File/EPA-SAB-11-015-unsigned.pdf, U.S. EPA (2011b). J. Agric. The Australia Department of Health has established a health-based drinking water quality value of 0.07 µg/L for use in site investigations, also based on reproductive/developmental effects. Shen, X.M., Yan, C.H., Guo, D., Wu, S.M., Li, R.Q., Huang, H., Ao, L.M., Zhou, J.D., Hong, Z.Y., Xu, J.D., Jin, X.M. Lead induced DNA strand breaks in lymphocytes of exposed workers: role of reactive oxygen species and protein kinase C. Mutat. Sci., 108(2): 412-418. Gomaa, A., Hu, H., Bellinger, D., Schwartz, J., Tsaih, S.W., Gonzalez-Cossio, T., Schnaas, L., Peterson, K., Aro, A. and Hernandez-Avila, M. (2002). Appl. J. (1990). In the laboratory tests, the challenge waters had a PFOS concentration of 3.0 µg/L and the target goals for performance was reduction to 0.2 µg/L. Metabolism of lead-210 in juvenile and adult rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). Kato, K., Wong, L.Y., Jia, L.T., Kuklenyik, Z. and Calafat, A.M. (2011). Australian drinking water guidelines. Decrease in birth weight in relation to maternal bone-lead burden. Environ. The levels of PFOS in the liver increased with age at exposure, whereas the PFOS levels in brain decreased with levels at PND 7 two times that at PND 35. Fraser, A.J., Webster, T.F., Watkins, D.J., Nelson, J.W., Stapleton, H.M., Calafat, A.M. et al. Private well water supplies: naturally occurring lead in bedrock. These differences result in higher target tissue doses in humans when exposed to the same external doses as animals. Available at: cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/iris/iris_documents/documents/subst/0277_summary.pdf. Water Res., 45(9): 2763–2774. As the NOAEL of 0.03 mg/kg bw per day from the 26-week monkey study is similar to the NOAEL for hepatocellular hypertrophy, thyroid hormone changes are considered as a potential critical effect for this assessment. PFOS was negative in the in vivo bone marrow mouse micronucleus assay at single oral doses of 237.5, 450 and 950 mg/kg bw (with sampling at 24, 48 and 72 hours), and several PFOS precursors were found negative in different in vivo tests (as reviewed by EFSA, 2008). Toxicology of perfluorinated compounds. Health Perspect., 104(1): 60–66. Geochim. The breakthrough goal was set at 90% removal efficiency and the tests conducted for 122 days. As PFOS and other perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are increasingly being detected in the environment, more scientific studies on their health effects are being conducted in Canada and around the world. Cancer, 23(4): 765–771. N. Engl. Occup. Panchangam, S. C., Yu-Chen Lin, A., Shaik, K.L. B Dev. Folstein, M.F., Folstein, S.E. Exp. At this dose, total serum cholesterol was decreased; serum triglycerides were decreased only at ≥1.6 mg/kg bw per day. Ecotoxicol. J. Inst. 90759. The available information on PFOS and PFOA toxicokinetics indicates a high degree of similarity (reviewed in section 8 of both documents). 3118). Technol., 47(16): 9300–9307. Another bench-scale study was conducted on one RO (MWCO of 100 Da) and three NF (MWCO range of 200 - 360 Da) membranes for the removal of PFOS in water. 0.03 kg is the default average body weight of a mouse (Health Canada, 1994); 70 kg is the default average body weight of a human adult (Health Canada, 1994); and. Yu, W.G., Liu, W., Jin, Y.H., Liu, X.H., Wang, F.Q., Liu, L. et al. In vitro, lead increases levels of hydrogen peroxide (Ariza et al., 1998). Epidemiology, 19(3): 496–504. Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality: Guideline Technical Document 2 Ammonia may also be added to treated water as part of the disinfection strategy to form chloramines as a secondary disinfectant. Herzke, D., Olsson, E. and Posner, S. (2012). and Peek, B.T. The use of exposure source allocation factor in the risk assessment of drinking-water contaminants. It has been argued that only elevated cytotoxic doses may be responsible for the induction of renal tumours.
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